Virtual Reality and Language Learning

VR is increasingly recognized as a transformative tool in language education. Defined as a computer-generated, immersive environment that simulates real-life experiences (Smart et al., 2007 as cited in Lin & Lan, 2015), VR enables learners to experience a strong sense of presence and engagement through high levels of interaction, immersion, and imagination (Burdea & Coiffet, 2003 as cited in Barrett et al., 2020). In language learning contexts, VR allows learners to experiment with roles and identities, reducing affective barriers such as anxiety while enhancing linguistic awareness and learner autonomy (Schwienhorst, 2002). Recent advances in VR technologies - particularly high-immersion VR (HiVR) using head-mounted displays such as Meta Quest headsets - have made immersive environments more accessible and pedagogically meaningful (Kucher Dhimolea et al., 2022). Studies have shown that such environments support contextualized vocabulary learning, collaborative dialogue, and improved oral communication by simulating authentic, low-stakes interactions (Barrett et al., 2020; Lin & Lan, 2015).

In their meta-analysis, Qiu et al. (2021) emphasize that VR/AR-supported language learning increasingly targets practical language competencies, especially pronunciation and speaking, followed by vocabulary, listening, and writing. They argue that VR's multimodal and interactive nature supports diverse learning preferences, but also caution that challenges such as implementation cost, lack of standardization, and potential cognitive overload remain unresolved. Lin and Lan (2015) similarly observed a pedagogical shift toward learner-centered approaches, where motivation, experiential learning, and task-based instruction are central. The evolution from text-based platforms like MOOs and MUDs to immersive 3D avatar-based environments such as Second Life reflects this trend, highlighting VR’s growing potential to simulate real-life scenarios that encourage authentic, meaningful communication.

Recent studies further validate VR's role in fostering language development. For instance, Qiu et al. (2023) found that VR had the strongest impact on vocabulary acquisition among EFL learners, with moderate gains in motivation, oral presentation, and listening comprehension. However, the technology was less effective for supporting reading and writing, likely due to VR’s inherently visual and auditory design. These findings highlight VR’s strength as a supplementary tool rather than a comprehensive replacement for traditional instruction. Complementing this, Lee et al. (2023) found that immersive VR significantly boosted students’ behavioral, affective, and cognitive engagement. Students reported higher motivation and active participation in low-anxiety environments that fostered embodied learning. While some experienced distraction due to the novelty of the medium, learning improved as they became familiar with the platform, reinforcing the importance of thoughtful instructional design, teacher facilitation, and careful management of cognitive load.

Despite its promising application, research on VR-assisted language learning remains limited, particularly in non-English contexts and among diverse learner populations. As the field continues to evolve, there is a pressing need for more inclusive and longitudinal studies that examine how VR can be effectively designed and integrated to support not only linguistic outcomes but also learner motivation, intercultural competence, and real-world communication skills.

Horwitz et al. (1986) define Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA) as a distinct anxiety type associated with language learning, especially in classroom settings. Unlike general anxiety, FLA specifically involves communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. Learners experiencing FLA often feel debilitating fear during speaking or comprehension activities, leading to impaired performance and acquisition. Symptoms include nervousness, memory issues, class avoidance, over-preparation, negative self-perception, feeling overwhelmed by language complexity, and fear of correction. Such anxiety creates an "affective filter," hindering effective language input and output. The authors recommend reducing classroom stress through supportive teaching practices and identifying anxious students using tools like the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS).

Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a powerful tool to address FLA. Yu and Duan’s (2024) meta-analysis of ten studies (486 participants) indicated a small yet significant effect favoring VR-assisted learning in reducing anxiety compared to traditional methods. VR provides immersive, low-pressure environments, allowing learners to practice without fear of judgment. The immersive sense of presence and interactivity alleviates anxiety by minimizing performance pressures and negative evaluations. Supporting these findings, York et al. (2021) reported that Japanese EFL learners favored VR over voice or video modalities due to greater enjoyment and comfort. Park et al. (2025) demonstrated that repeated use of customizable immersive VR significantly lowered anxiety among East Asian learners, particularly benefiting introverted students through personalized, low-threat practice environments. Kaplan-Rakowski and Gruber (2023) similarly found VR more effective than Zoom in reducing public speaking anxiety, attributing its effectiveness to diminished social judgment and enhanced immersion. Collectively, these studies emphasize VR’s unique ability to offer psychologically safe, engaging, and personalized contexts that effectively reduce FLA and build learner confidence.

Willingness to Communicate (WTC) refers to a learner’s readiness to initiate communication in a second language, shaped by internal factors like self-confidence, anxiety, motivation, and language proficiency, as well as external influences such as classroom environment and instructional practices. Dewaele and Dewaele (2018) found that positive attitudes toward the foreign language, higher proficiency, social enjoyment, and frequent use of the target language by the teacher were strong predictors of WTC, while foreign language anxiety was the most significant negative factor. Building on this, Shafiee Rad (2024) demonstrated that the AI-based Speeko application significantly enhanced learners’ WTC by providing personalized feedback, reducing anxiety, and increasing learners’ confidence and motivation. The AI-supported learning environment fostered greater communicative engagement by offering low-stakes, individualized practice. Together, these studies highlight the importance of emotionally supportive, interactive, and student-centered learning environments, whether traditional or technology-enhanced, for cultivating learners’ willingness to communicate in a second language. Other studies conducted on integration of VR also found to help WTC in an additional language.

Recent research highlights two distinct yet complementary pathways through which learners’ WTC in a second language can be enhanced: immersive technology and cognitive mediation. The study by Ebadi and Ebadijalal (2020) demonstrated that using Google Expeditions virtual reality (VR) significantly improved EFL learners’ WTC by providing an engaging, low-anxiety, and authentic environment. Learners in the VR group reported greater confidence, motivation, and preparedness, leading to increased willingness to initiate communication in English. Similarly, Zadorozhnyy and Lee (2023) investigated the effects of Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE) and found that self-efficacy beliefs—learners’ confidence in their ability to perform English tasks—fully mediated the relationship between IDLE and WTC. Unlike prior research, this study showed that neither receptive nor productive IDLE activities directly impacted WTC; rather, frequent participation in IDLE activities strengthened learners’ self-efficacy, which in turn boosted their WTC. These studies suggest that both immersive virtual environments and self-directed digital learning outside the classroom can foster learners’ communicative readiness, either directly through affective engagement or indirectly via cognitive empowerment. This project’s aim is to encourage students’ language learning and provide them with a comprehensible input throughout the time they receive instruction. Thus, WTC is an important factor to consider.

Motivation plays a critical role in language learning, and virtual reality (VR) is increasingly recognized for its ability to enhance learner motivation compared to traditional classrooms. Uztosun’s (2017) framework on self-regulated motivation emphasizes learners' active control over their cognitive, emotional, and contextual processes. His 20-item Self-Regulated Motivation for Improving Speaking English as a Foreign Language (SRMIS-EFL) scale captures four dimensions: task value activation (perceived importance of speaking English), regulation of the learning environment (creating practice opportunities), regulation of affect (managing anxiety and self-confidence), and regulation of the classroom environment (active participation). This scale provides a valuable lens to understand how VR influences learners' intrinsic motivation.

Various factors help language learning in VR become more motivating for learners. These include engagement with immersive environments, a sense of belonging created by avatars, and opportunities for meaningful interaction that align with individual learning styles. Recent studies highlight how VR tools can significantly enhance language learner motivation by offering more authentic, engaging, and personalized learning experiences.

Devadze and Gechbaia (2024) found that VR significantly boosted student motivation by engaging them through immersive and interactive experiences. Students showed greater independence and enthusiasm, although challenges like technical issues and lack of teacher training sometimes hindered effectiveness, particularly for less motivated learners. Chen and Hwang (2020) reported that learners using immersive VR systems demonstrated significantly higher motivation than those using traditional multimedia tools. This was true across cognitive styles, with field-independent learners benefiting slightly more. The ability to explore realistic environments and complete meaningful tasks was key to boosting motivation.

Avatars also contribute to motivational gains. Chen and Kent (2020) found that customizable avatars in virtual environments helped struggling ESL learners feel safer and more confident, encouraging risk-taking and active participation. Similarly, Yang et al. (2020) showed that avatars functioning as conversational partners fostered a sense of presence, reduced anxiety, and supported real-world communication tasks.

Despite some limitations, such as technical barriers and training gaps, these findings collectively suggest that well-designed VR environments—especially those integrating avatars—can create a motivating, low-pressure space for language learning. Uztosun’s scale will help assess how learners sustain motivation when using VR, providing insights into the emotional and contextual factors that shape their language development.

A growing body of research highlights the positive impact of virtual reality (VR) on speaking and oral proficiency in second language learning. VR environments create psychologically safe and immersive contexts that lower learners’ anxiety and increase their willingness to communicate, two essential factors in developing oral skills. Studies consistently show that VR can support the development of key speaking components such as fluency, lexical resource, and pronunciation, though grammar gains are often less substantial.

Hoang et al. (2023) found that Vietnamese EFL students who engaged in VR-integrated speaking lessons demonstrated statistically significant improvements in fluency, coherence, vocabulary, and pronunciation, with students reporting increased confidence and motivation. Similarly, Xie et al. (2021) showed that advanced Chinese learners using mobile VR tools achieved higher scores in content and vocabulary while also experiencing greater engagement and reduced anxiety. Although grammar, fluency, and pronunciation scores did not significantly improve in this study, learners benefited from the contextualized, low-pressure speaking practice.

Further supporting these findings, Kaplan-Rakowski and Gruber (2023) observed that learners practicing in VR experienced reduced public speaking anxiety and developed greater fluency and confidence. Rababah (2023) focused specifically on pronunciation and found that VR-based training significantly enhanced learners’ fluency, intonation, and rhythm, providing engaging, real-world practice. However, not all findings are uniformly positive. Ironsi (2023) reported that although learners and teachers found VR lessons enjoyable, they did not observe measurable improvements in speaking skills, citing equipment challenges and insufficient integration. Dooly et al. (2023), studying young EFL learners, found that while accuracy was lower in VR, learners produced more spontaneous and communicatively meaningful language, and one student even reached CEFR B1 and B2 level performance in oral tasks. Taken together, these studies underscore the potential of VR to enhance various aspects of speaking proficiency, particularly when learners are provided with low-anxiety, context-rich environments. In my own project, I observed similar patterns; learners showed increased confidence, more spontaneous language use, and greater engagement during VR-integrated tasks, suggesting that when effectively implemented, VR can serve as a powerful supplement to traditional speaking instruction.