1. Behaviorism: Key Concept — Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)

Definition

In behaviorism, particularly operant conditioning as conceptualized by B. F. Skinner, the term reinforcement encapsulates any outcome that raises the probability of a behavior recurring. There are two distinct types of reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement occurs when a favorable stimulus is added following a behavior, thereby strengthening it.

Negative reinforcement occurs when an unfavorable stimulus is taken away following a behavior, thereby strengthening it.

Reinforcement is only one part of operant conditioning. Skinner partitions the prevention of reinforcement as the punishment. Skinner's punishment is used to reduce a behavior's frequency by providing an unfavorable stimulus or removing a favorable one.

Example in Practice

Imagine a teacher wants students to raise their hands before speaking in class.

Positive reinforcement: Every time a student raises their hand before speaking, the teacher immediately praises them (“Great question!”) or gives them a small token (e.g. a star). Because of this reward, the student is more likely to keep raising their hand in the future.
Negative reinforcement: Suppose a student dislikes being interrupted by corrections from classmates. The teacher promises that if they raise their hand, they will not be interrupted by others. So raising the hand removes the aversive interruption, reinforcing the hand-raising behavior.

Overtime, reinforcement creates a reliable behavior pattern in students. In this instance, consistently raising a hand when prompted to do so. In practical scenarios, behaviorists manipulate reinforcement schedules to control the frequency of reinforcement provided, to influence how resistant a behavior will be to extinguishing.

2. Intelligence Test: The WAIS

One classic example is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). It is a widely used IQ test for adults and older adolescents. WAIS divides the facets of intelligence into several index subtests (e.g. verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed). The test offers an overall IQ score while also illustrating a profile of strengths and weaknesses among the aforementioned dimensions.

Another simpler example is the Picture Arrangement Test (a subtest sometimes used in older IQ test batteries). The test taker is given a set of pictures in random order and asked to arrange them into a logical story as quickly as possible. This measures the ability in social reasoning and the logical and sequential tasks.

What the test is used for:

Clinical assessment: diagnosing intellectual disability, cognitive impairments, effects of brain injury (e.g. after trauma)
Educational placement: identifying giftedness or special educational needs
Research: comparing intelligence across populations
In some cases, career or recruitment uses (though more controversial)

Uses & Strengths

Provides a standardized metric for comparing cognitive abilities across individuals

Helps identify cognitive strengths and weaknesses, which can guide educational interventions

Useful in clinical settings to track cognitive decline or development (e.g. dementia, brain injury)

It’s relatively well-normed (has norms developed from large populations)
Combines multiple subtests to cover different cognitive domains (not just one kind of thinking)

Limits & Critiques

Cultural and socioeconomic bias: Performance is influenced by language, culture, schooling, and familiarity with test formats, which can disadvantage certain groups.

Narrow scope: IQ tests measure certain types of cognitive skills (e.g. logic, memory, speed) but often neglect creativity, emotional intelligence, practical intelligence, and other human capacities.

Fixed condition effects: A person’s performance can vary depending on test day, stress, health, motivation, test anxiety — not always reflecting “true intelligence.”

Labeling and misuse: Scores can lead to pigeonholing, overemphasis on a single number, stereotyping or discrimination (historically used in eugenics, etc.)

Ceiling/floor effects: Very high or low performers may be outside the range the test can reliably measure

Static snapshot: Intelligence is dynamic; a single test at one time doesn’t fully capture growth or potential

References

Cherry, K. (2023, September 13). The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/the-wechsler-adult-intelligence-scale-2795283

Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Intelligence testing. In Psychology 2e. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-abnormalpsych/chapter/intelligence-testing/

McLeod, S. (2023). Operant conditioning. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html

Polytechnique Insights. (2021, April 20). IQ: Can intelligence really be measured?https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/columns/neuroscience/iq-can-intelligence-really-be-measured/

Vivier, P. (n.d.). IQ tests: Advantages and limitations in evaluating giftedness. PhilippeVivier.com. https://www.philippevivier.com/en/iq-tests-advantages-and-limitations-in-evaluating-giftedness.html

Wikipedia contributors. (2024). Picture arrangement test. In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picture_arrangement_test